tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-840187752608361402024-03-05T21:23:05.896+05:30AUTO MOBILEsureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.comBlogger70125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-3871842616799010712010-07-14T12:53:00.001+05:302010-07-14T12:54:45.044+05:30trigonometri levellingIITRIGONOMETRICAL LEVELING<br /><br />Objectives:<br />1. To determine the height of the building i.e. base accessible case and<br />2. To determine the height of the chimney i.e. base inaccessible case.<br /><br />Instruments required:<br />1. Transit Theodolite<br />2. Ranging rods<br />3. Pegs and hammer<br />4. Tape<br />5. Plumb bob<br /><br />Theory<br />Trigonometrical leveling:<br />Trigonometrical leveling is the process of determining the differences of elevations of stations from observed vertical angles and known distances, which are assumed to be either horizontal or geodetic lengths at mean sea level. The vertical angle may be measured by means of an accurate theodolite and the horizontal distances may either be measured (in the case of plane surveying) or computed (in case of geodetic observations).<br />In order to get the difference in elevation between the instrument station and the object under observation, we may consider different cases.<br />1. Base of the object accessible<br />Let us assume that the horizontal distance between the instrument and the object can be measured accurately. In figure,<br /> <br />Fig 3.1. Base accessible<br />Let, D = horizontal distance between P (instrument station) and Q (point to be observed i.e. tower)<br /> V1 = QQ'<br /> V2 = Q'Q1<br /> H = height of the tower<br /> s = reading of staff kept at B.M. with line of sight horizontal<br /> α1 = angle of elevation from A to Q<br /> α2 = angle of depression from A to Q1<br />From Δ AQQ',<br /> V1 = D tanα1<br /> V2 = D tanα2<br /> R.L. of Q = R.L. of instrument axis + V1<br /> = R.L. of B.M. + s + V1<br /> R.L. of Q = R.L. of B.M. + s + D tanα1<br />Also, H = V1 + V2<br /> = D tanα1 + D tanα2<br /> H = D (tanα1 + tanα2)<br /><br />2. Base of the object inaccessible: instrument stations in the same vertical plane with the instrument axes at different level<br /> <br />Fig 3.2 Instrument axes at different level<br />In Δ OQP', V1 = D tanα1 .................(i)<br />In Δ ORP", V2 = (H + D) tanα2 .................(ii)<br />Where α1 = the angle of elevations from instrument stations A<br /> α2 = the angle of elevations from instrument stations B and A is at higher level than B<br /> D = distance between target tower OP and nearer instrument station A<br /> H = distance between instrument stations A and B (measured directly)<br />Let, s1 = reading of staff kept at B.M. from instrument station A with line of sight horizontal <br /> s2 = reading of staff kept at B.M. from instrument station B with line of sight horizontal<br />and s = s2 + s1<br />Then, from figure, <br /> s = V2 − V1<br /> = (H + D) tanα2 − D tanα1<br /> = H tanα2 + D (tanα2 − tanα1)<br /> D = s − H tanα2tanα2 − tanα1 ....................................(iii)<br />From equation (i), we get,<br /> V1 = s − H tanα2tanα2 − tanα1 × tanα1<br /> = (s cotα2 − H) tanα1 tanα2tanα2 − tanα1 = (s cotα2 − H) sinα1 sinα2sin (α2 − α1)<br />Then,<br /> R.L. of top of tower i.e., point O = R.L. of line of sight of staion A to B.M. + V1<br /> = R.L. of B.M. + s1 + V1<br /><br />3. Base of the object inaccessible: instrument stations are at different planes<br /> <br />Fig 1.4. Instrument stations are at different plane<br />From Δ ABT,<br /> ATB = 180° − ( α + β) = π − ( α + β)<br />Also, in Δ ABT, applying sine rule, <br /> BTsinα = ATsinβ = ABsin(π −(α +β)) = dsin(α +β)<br /> BT = d sinαsin(α +β) and<br /> AT = d sinβsin(α +β)<br />From second figure,<br /> VA = AT tanαA<br /> = d sinβ tanαAsin(α +β)<br /> R.L. of T = R.L. of B.M. + sA + VA <br />As similar,<br /> VB = BT tanαA<br /> = d sinα tanαBsin(α +β)<br /> R.L. of T = R.L. of B.M. + sB + VBsureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-5697787082534188772010-07-14T12:50:00.001+05:302010-07-14T12:52:44.416+05:30theodolite surveyIIObjectives:<br />1. To make a traverse by measuring included angle (using theodolite) and sides by direct measurement (using tape).<br />2. To plot the plan of the given area by Tacheometric surveying.<br /><br /><br />Instruments required:<br />1. Transit Theodolite<br />2. Stadia rod<br />3. Ranging rods<br />4. Pegs and hammer<br />5. Tape<br />6. Prismatic compass<br />7. Plumb bob<br /><br /><br />Theory<br />Traversing<br />Traversing is that type of survey in which a number of connected lines form the framework and the directions and lengths of the survey lines are measured with the help of an angle or direction measuring instrument and a tape or chain respectively. When the lines form a circuit which ends at the starting point or point of the known position or coordinate, it is known as a closed traverse. If the circuit ends elsewhere, it is said to be an open traverse. The closed traverse is suitable for locating the boundaries of lakes, and for the survey of large areas. The open traverse is suitable for surveying a long narrow strip of land as required for a road or canal or the coast line.<br />Traversing by direct observation of angles<br />In this method, the angles between the lines are directly measured by a theodolite. The method is, therefore, most accurate in comparison to the chain traversing or compass traversing or plane table traversing methods. The magnetic bearing of any one line can also be measured if required and the magnetic bearing of other lines can be calculated. The angles measured at different stations may be included angles.<br />An included angle at a station is either of the two angles formed by the two survey lines meeting there. The method consists simply in measuring each angle directly from a backside in the preceding station. Both face observations must be taken and both the verniers should be read. Included angles can be measured clockwise or counter clockwise but it is better to measure all angles clockwise, since the graduations of the theodolite circle increase in this direction. The angle measured clockwise from the back station may be interior or exterior depending up on the direction of progress round the survey.<br /><br />Plotting a traverse survey:<br />There are two principal methods of plotting a traverse survey:<br />1. Angle and distance method<br />In this method, distances between stations are laid off to scale and angles or bearings are plotted by protractor. This method is suitable for the small surveys, and is much inferior to the coordinate method in respect of accuracy of plotting. The ordinary protractor is seldom divided more finely than 10' or 15' which accords with the accuracy of compass traversing but not of theodolite traversing. A good form of protractor for plotting survey lines is the large circular cardboard type, 40 to 60 cm in diameter.<br />2. Co-ordinate system<br />In this method, survey stations are plotted by calculating their coordinates. This method is by far the most practical and accurate one for plotting traverses or any other extensive system of horizontal control. The biggest advantage in this method of plotting is that the closing error can be eliminating by balancing, prior to plotting.<br /><br />Consecutive coordinate: Latitude and Departure<br />The latitude of a survey line may be defined as its coordinate length measured parallel to an assumed meridian direction i.e. true north or magnetic north or any other reference direction. The departure of a survey line may be defined as its coordinate length measured at right angles to the meridian direction. The latitude (L) of the line is positive when measured northward or upward and is termed as northing. The latitude is negative when measured southward or downward and is termed as southing. Similarly, the departure (D) of the line is positive when measured eastward or right and is termed as easting and is negative when measured westward or left and is termed as westing. <br /> <br />Fig. 1.1. Latitude and Departure<br />Thus, in fig. 1.1, the latitude and departure of the line AB of length l and reduced bearing θ are given by <br /> L = + l cos θ<br />And D = + l sin θ<br /><br />Independent coordinates:<br />The coordinates of traverse stations can be calculated with respect to a common origin. The total latitude and departure of any point with respect to a common origin are known as independent coordinates or total coordinates of the point. The two reference axes in this case may be chosen to pass through any of the traverse station bur generally a most westerly station is chosen for this purpose. The independent coordinates of any point may be obtained by adding algebraically the latitudes and departures of the lines between that point and the origin.<br /><br />Closing error:<br />If a closed traverse is plotted according to the field measurements, the end point of the traverse will not coincide exactly with the starting point, owing to the errors in the field measurements of angles and distances. Such error is called closing error (Fig. 1.2). In a closed traverse, the algebraic sum of the latitudes (i.e. ∑ L) should be zero and the algebraic sum of the departures (i.e. ∑ D) should be zero. The error of closure for such traverse may be ascertained by finding ∑ L and ∑ D, both of these being the components of error e parallel and perpendicular to meridian.<br /> <br />Fif. 1.2. Closing error<br /><br />In fig. 1.2,<br /> Closing error e = AA' = (∑ L)2 + (∑ D)2 <br /> The direction of closing error is given by<br /> tanδ = ∑D∑L <br /><br />Adjustment of the angular error:<br />Before calculating latitudes and departures, the traverse angles should be adjusted to satisfy the geometrical conditions. In a closed traverse, the sum of interior angles should be equal to (2N − 4) × 90°. If the angles are measured with the same degree of precision, the error in the sum of angles may be distributed equally to each angle of the traverse. If the angular error is small, it may be arbitrarily distributed among two or three angles.<br /><br />Balancing the traverse:<br />The term balancing is generally applied to the operation of applying corrections to latitudes and departures so that ∑ L =0 and ∑ D = 0. This applies only when the survey forms a closed polygon. Common methods of balancing the traverse are <br />1. Bowditch's method<br />The basis of this method is on the assumptions that the errors in linear measurements are proportional to l where l is the length of the line. The Bowditch's rule, also termed as the compass rule, is mostly used to balance a traverse where linear and angular measurements are of equal precision. The total error in latitude and in departure is distributed in proportion to the lengths of the sides.<br />The Bowditch's rule is:<br />Correction to latitude (or departure) of any side <br /> = Total error in latitude (or departure) × Length of that sidePerimeter of traverse <br /> i.e, CL = ∑L . l∑l<br /> And CD = ∑D . l∑l<br />Where CL = correction to latitude of any side<br /> CD = correction to departure of any side<br /> ∑L= total error in latitude<br /> ∑D= total error in departure<br /> ∑l = length of the perimeter<br /> l = length of any side<br />2. Transit method<br />The transit rule may be employed where angular measurements are more precise than the linear measurements. According to this rule, the total error in latitudes and in departures is distributed in proportion to the latitudes and departures of the sides. It is claimed that the angles are less affected by corrections applied by transit method than by those by Bowditch's method. <br />The transit rule is:<br />Correction to latitude (or departure) of any side <br /> = Total error in latitude (or departure) ×Latitude (or Departure) of that sideArithmatic sum of Latitudes (or Departures) <br /> i.e., CL = ∑L . L∑|L|<br /> and CD = ∑D . D∑|D|<br />Where L = latitude of any side<br /> D = departure of any side<br /> ∑|L| = arithmetic sum of latitudes<br /> ∑|D| = arithmetic sum of departures<br />3. Graphical method<br />For rough survey, such as compass traverse, the Bowditch's rule may be applied graphically without doing theoretical calculations. Thus, according to the graphical method, it is necessary to calculate latitudes and departures etc. However, before plotting the traverse directly from the field notes, the angles or bearings may be adjusted to satisfy the geometrical conditions of the traverse.<br /> <br />Fig.1.3. Graphical adjustment of traverse<br />4. The axis method<br />This method is adopted when the angles are measured very accurately, the corrections being applied to lengths only. Thus, only directions of the line are changed and the general shape of the diagram is preserved.<br /> <br />Fig. 1.4. Axis method of balancing traverse<br /><br />According to this method,<br />Correction to any length = that length × 12 length of closing errorLength of axis of adjustment <br /><br />Tacheometric surveying:<br />Tacheometry (or Tachemetry or Telemetry) is a branch of angular surveying in which the horizontal and vertical distances of points are obtained by optical means as opposed to the ordinary slower process of measurements by tape or chain. The method is very rapid and convenient. Although the accuracy of Tacheometry in general compares unfavorably with that of chaining, it is best adopted in obstacles such as steep and broken ground, deep ravines, stretches of water or swamp and so on, which make chaining difficult or impossible. The accuracy attained is such that under favorable conditions the error will not exceed 1/1000, and if the purpose of a survey does not require greater accuracy, the method is unexcelled. The primary object of Tacheometry is the preparation of contoured maps or plans requiring both the horizontal as well as vertical control. Also, on surveys of higher accuracy, it provides a check on distances measured with the tape.<br /><br />Instruments for tacheometry<br />An ordinary transit theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm is generally used for tacheometric survey. The stadia diaphragm essentially consists of one stadia hair above and the other an equal distance below the horizontal cross-hair, the stadia hairs being mounted in the same ring and in the same vertical plane as the vertical and horizontal cross-hairs.<br /> <br />Fig.1.5. Stadia diaphragm<br />Stadia method for tacheometric measurement<br />This is the most common method in tacheometry. In this method, observation is made with the help of a stadia diaphragm having stadia wires at fixed or constant distance apart. The readings on the staff corresponding to all the three wires are taken. The staffs intercepts, i.e. the difference of the readings corresponding to top and bottom stadia wires will therefore, depend on the distance of the staff from the instrument. When the staff intercepts is more than the length of the staff, only half intercept is read. For inclined sights, readings may be taken by keeping the staff either vertical or normal to the line of sight.<br /><br /><br /><br />Principle of stadia method<br />The stadia method is based on the principle that the ratio of the perpendicular to the base is constant in similar isosceles triangles.<br />In Fig. 1.6, let two rays OA and OB be equally inclined to the central ray OC. Let A2B2, A1B1 and AB be the staff intercepts, <br />Then OC2A2B2 = OC1A1B1 = OCAB = constant = OC2 × AC <br /> = 12 tan β2 = 12 cot β2<br /> <br />Fig. 1.6.<br /><br /> <br />Fig. 1.7. Principle of stadia method<br />Let A, C and B = the points cut by the three line of sight corresponding to the three wires.<br />Also, a, c and b = top, axial and bottom hairs of the diaphragm.<br /> ab = i = interval between the stadia hairs (stadia interval)<br /> AB = s = staff intercept <br /> d = distance of the vertical axis of the instrument from O<br /> D = horizontal distance of the staff from the vertical axis of the instrument<br /> M = center of the instrument corresponding to the vertical axis<br />Now, from figure,<br /> FCAB = OFa'b' = fi <br />Or, FC = fi AB = fi s<br />Also, distance from the axis to the staff is given by<br /> D = FC + ( f + d ) = fi s + ( f + d ) = k s + C <br />Above equation is known as the distance equation.<br />The constant k = fi is known as the multiplying constant or stadia interval factor and the constant C = ( f + d ) is known as the additive constant of the instrument.<br />Using a Plano-convex lens called anallatic or anallactic lens at the vertical axis (at point M), the values of k and C are made 100 and 0 for simplicity of calculation.<br /><br />Distance and elevation formula <br /> <br />Fig. 1.8<br />We know, distance of the staff from the instrument is given as<br /> D = k A'B' + C<br /> = k s cos α + C <br />Then, the horizontal distance is given as <br /> H = D cos α <br /> H = k s cos2 α + C cos α <br />Also, elevation of the line of sight from the instrument is<br /> V = k s cos α sin α + C sin α<br /> V = k s sin 2α + C sin α<br />Thus, elevation of the staff station is given by<br /> R.L. of staff station Y = R.L. of instrument station X + H.I. + V − h<br /><br />Observations and Calculations:<br /><br />Table 1.1. Linear Measurement of Survey Lines<br /><br />S. N. Line Forward Measurement<br />(f) m Backward Measurement<br />(b) m Mean length<br />(x = f + b2 ) m<br />Discrepancy<br />(e = | f - b |) m Precision<br />( p = ex ) <br /><br />1 AB 40.594 40.614 40.604 0.020 12030 <br /><br />2 BC 25.896 25.902 25.899 0.006 14316 <br /><br />3 CD 41.364 41.358 41.361 0.006 16893 <br /><br />4 DE 28.732 28.734 28.733 0.002 114366 <br /><br />5 EA 42.486 42.492 42.489 0.006 17081sureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-5995061713277288672010-07-13T21:45:00.001+05:302010-07-13T21:46:53.289+05:30tacheometry surveying IITACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING<br /><br />Objectives:<br />1. To plot the plan of the area by the help of tacheometric survey.<br /><br />Instruments required:<br />1. Transit Theodolite<br />2. Stadia rods (staff)<br />3. Ranging rods<br />4. Pegs and hammer<br />5. Tape<br />6. Prismatic compass<br />7. Plumb bob<br /><br />Theory<br />Tacheometry<br />Tacheometry (or Tachemetry or Telemetry) is a branch of angular surveying in which the horizontal and vertical distances of points are obtained by optical means as opposed to the ordinary slower process of measurements by tape or chain. The method is very rapid and convenient. Although the accuracy of Tacheometry in general compares unfavorably with that of chaining, it is best adopted in obstacles such as steep and broken ground, deep ravines, stretches of water or swamp and so on, which make chaining difficult or impossible. The accuracy attained is such that under favorable conditions the error will not exceed 1/1000, and if the purpose of a survey does not require greater accuracy, the method is unexcelled. The primary object of Tacheometry is the preparation of contoured maps or plans requiring both the horizontal as well as vertical control. Also, on surveys of higher accuracy, it provides a check on distances measured with the tape.<br /><br />Instruments for tacheometry<br />An ordinary transit theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm is generally used for tacheometric survey. The stadia diaphragm essentially consists of one stadia hair above and the other an equal distance below the horizontal cross-hair, the stadia hairs being mounted in the same ring and in the same vertical plane as the vertical and horizontal cross-hairs.<br /> <br />Fig.1.5. Stadia diaphragm<br />Stadia method for tacheometric measurement<br />This is the most common method in tacheometry. In this method, observation is made with the help of a stadia diaphragm having stadia wires at fixed or constant distance apart. The readings on the staff corresponding to all the three wires are taken. The staffs intercepts, i.e. the difference of the readings corresponding to top and bottom stadia wires will therefore, depend on the distance of the staff from the instrument. When the staff intercepts is more than the length of the staff, only half intercept is read. For inclined sights, readings may be taken by keeping the staff either vertical or normal to the line of sight.<br /><br />Principle of stadia method<br />The stadia method is based on the principle that the ratio of the perpendicular to the base is constant in similar isosceles triangles.<br />In Fig. 1.6, let two rays OA and OB be equally inclined to the central ray OC. Let A2B2, A1B1 and AB be the staff intercepts, <br />Then OC2A2B2 = OC1A1B1 = OCAB = constant = OC2 × AC <br /> = 12 tan β2 = 12 cot β2<br /> <br />Fig. 1.6.<br /><br /> <br />Fig. 1.7. Principle of stadia method<br />Let A, C and B = the points cut by the three line of sight corresponding to the three wires.<br />Also, a, c and b = top, axial and bottom hairs of the diaphragm.<br /> ab = i = interval between the stadia hairs (stadia interval)<br /> AB = s = staff intercept <br /> d = distance of the vertical axis of the instrument from O<br /> D = horizontal distance of the staff from the vertical axis of the instrument<br /> M = center of the instrument corresponding to the vertical axis<br />Now, from figure,<br /> FCAB = OFa'b' = fi <br />Or, FC = fi AB = fi s<br />Also, distance from the axis to the staff is given by<br /> D = FC + ( f + d ) = fi s + ( f + d ) = k s + C <br />Above equation is known as the distance equation.<br />The constant k = fi is known as the multiplying constant or stadia interval factor and the constant C = ( f + d ) is known as the additive constant of the instrument.<br />Using a Plano-convex lens called anallatic or anallactic lens at the vertical axis (at point M), the values of k and C are made 100 and 0 for simplicity of calculation.<br /><br /><br />Distance and elevation formula <br /> <br />Fig. 1.8<br />We know, distance of the staff from the instrument is given as<br /> D = k A'B' + C<br /> = k s cos α + C <br />Then, the horizontal distance is given as <br /> H = D cos α <br /> H = k s cos2 α + C cos α <br />Also, elevation of the line of sight from the instrument is<br /> V = k s cos α sin α + C sin α<br /> V = k s sin 2α + C sin α<br />Thus, elevation of the staff station is given by<br /> R.L. of staff station Y = R.L. of instrument station X + H.I. + V − hsureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-78459955177505335962010-07-13T21:42:00.001+05:302010-07-13T21:45:06.657+05:30contouringCONTOURING<br /><br />Objectives:<br />1. To plot the contour of the given field<br /><br />Instruments required:<br />1. Transit Theodolite<br />2. Staff<br />3. Ranging rods<br />4. Pegs and hammer<br />5. Tape<br />6. Plumb bob<br /><br />Theory<br />Introduction<br />The value of plan or map is highly enhanced if the relative position of the points is represented both horizontally as well as vertically. Such maps are known as topographic maps. Thus, in a topographic survey, both horizontal as well as vertical controls are required. On a plan, the relative altitudes of the points can be represented by shading, hachures, form lines or contour lines. Out of these, contour lines are most widely used because they indicate the elevations directly.<br /><br />Contour<br />A contour is an imaginary line on the ground joining the points of equal elevations. It is a line in which the surface of the ground is intersected by a level surface. A contour line is a line on the map representing a contour.<br />A topographic map presents a clear picture of the surface of the ground. If a map is to a big scale, it shows where the ground is nearly level, where it is slopping, where the slopes are steep and where they are gradual. If a map is to a small scale, it shows the flat country, the hills and valleys, the lakes and water courses and other topographic features. <br /><br />Contour interval<br />The vertical distance between any two consecutive contours is called contour interval. The contour interval is kept constant for a contour plan, otherwise the general appearance of the map will be misleading. The horizontal distance between two points on two consecutive contours is known as the horizontal equivalent and depends upon the steepness of the ground. The choice of proper contour interval depends upon the following considerations:<br />1. The nature of the ground<br />The contour interval depends up on whether the contour is flat or highly undulated. A contour interval chosen for a flat ground will be highly unsuitable for undulated ground. For every undulated ground, a small interval is necessary. If the ground is more broken, greater contour interval should be adopted, otherwise the contours will come too close to each other.<br />2. The scale of the map:<br />The contour interval should be inversely proportional to the scale. If the scale is small, the contour interval should be large. If the scale is large, the contour interval should be small.<br />3. The purpose and extent of the survey:<br />The contour interval largely depends upon the purpose and extent of the survey. For example, if the survey is intended for detailed design work or for accurate earth work calculations, small contour interval is to be used. The extent of survey in such cases will generally be small. In the case of location surveys, for lines of communications and for reservoir and drainage areas, where the extent of survey is large, a large contour interval is to be used.<br />4. Time and expense of field and office work:<br />If the time available is less, greater contour interval should be used. If the contour interval is small, greater time will be taken in the field survey, in reduction and in plotting the map.<br /><br />Characteristics of contours:<br />The following characteristic features may be used while plotting or reading a contour plan:sureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-26854349221175880742010-06-04T15:37:00.001+05:302010-06-04T15:37:57.629+05:30about acknowledgementAcknowledgement <br />To tell the truth, I am very obliged towards the “KHWOPA ENGINEERING COLLEGE”, affiliated to Purbanchal University(PU), for providing me the valuable knowledge of workshop technology. This knowledge of the workshop technology has developed a kind of confidence in me to face the challenges related to the technical field, in the near future.<br /><br />I would like to express my sincere gratetude towards Mr……… & Mr…………… for their cooperation, help and encouragement to prepare this report.<br /><br />I am also grateful to my senior Mr ……………………. & Mr ……………………. and all my friends for their guidance and help.<br /><br />Finally, I am also grateful to the authors of ‘element of workshop technology’, Mr SK Chaudhary and Dr SC Bhattacharya.sureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-51714348021689143762010-06-04T15:32:00.000+05:302010-06-04T15:35:00.991+05:30report on theodolite traversing1THEODOLITE SURVEY<br /><br /><br />Objectives:<br />1. To make a traverse by measuring included angle (using theodolite) and sides by direct measurement (using tape).<br />2. To plot the plan of the given area by Tacheometric surveying.<br /><br /><br />Instruments required:<br />1. Transit Theodolite<br />2. Stadia rod<br />3. Ranging rods<br />4. Pegs and hammer<br />5. Tape<br />6. Prismatic compass<br />7. Plumb bob<br /><br /><br />Theory<br />Traversing<br />Traversing is that type of survey in which a number of connected lines form the framework and the directions and lengths of the survey lines are measured with the help of an angle or direction measuring instrument and a tape or chain respectively. When the lines form a circuit which ends at the starting point or point of the known position or coordinate, it is known as a closed traverse. If the circuit ends elsewhere, it is said to be an open traverse. The closed traverse is suitable for locating the boundaries of lakes, and for the survey of large areas. The open traverse is suitable for surveying a long narrow strip of land as required for a road or canal or the coast line.<br />Traversing by direct observation of angles<br />In this method, the angles between the lines are directly measured by a theodolite. The method is, therefore, most accurate in comparison to the chain traversing or compass traversing or plane table traversing methods. The magnetic bearing of any one line can also be measured if required and the magnetic bearing of other lines can be calculated. The angles measured at different stations may be included angles.<br />An included angle at a station is either of the two angles formed by the two survey lines meeting there. The method consists simply in measuring each angle directly from a backside in the preceding station. Both face observations must be taken and both the verniers should be read. Included angles can be measured clockwise or counter clockwise but it is better to measure all angles clockwise, since the graduations of the theodolite circle increase in this direction. The angle measured clockwise from the back station may be interior or exterior depending up on the direction of progress round the survey.<br /><br />Plotting a traverse survey:<br />There are two principal methods of plotting a traverse survey:<br />1. Angle and distance method<br />In this method, distances between stations are laid off to scale and angles or bearings are plotted by protractor. This method is suitable for the small surveys, and is much inferior to the coordinate method in respect of accuracy of plotting. The ordinary protractor is seldom divided more finely than 10' or 15' which accords with the accuracy of compass traversing but not of theodolite traversing. A good form of protractor for plotting survey lines is the large circular cardboard type, 40 to 60 cm in diameter.<br />2. Co-ordinate system<br />In this method, survey stations are plotted by calculating their coordinates. This method is by far the most practical and accurate one for plotting traverses or any other extensive system of horizontal control. The biggest advantage in this method of plotting is that the closing error can be eliminating by balancing, prior to plotting.<br /><br />Consecutive coordinate: Latitude and Departure<br />The latitude of a survey line may be defined as its coordinate length measured parallel to an assumed meridian direction i.e. true north or magnetic north or any other reference direction. The departure of a survey line may be defined as its coordinate length measured at right angles to the meridian direction. The latitude (L) of the line is positive when measured northward or upward and is termed as northing. The latitude is negative when measured southward or downward and is termed as southing. Similarly, the departure (D) of the line is positive when measured eastward or right and is termed as easting and is negative when measured westward or left and is termed as westing. <br /> <br />Fig. 1.1. Latitude and Departure<br />Thus, in fig. 1.1, the latitude and departure of the line AB of length l and reduced bearing θ are given by <br /> L = + l cos θ<br />And D = + l sin θ<br /><br />Independent coordinates:<br />The coordinates of traverse stations can be calculated with respect to a common origin. The total latitude and departure of any point with respect to a common origin are known as independent coordinates or total coordinates of the point. The two reference axes in this case may be chosen to pass through any of the traverse station bur generally a most westerly station is chosen for this purpose. The independent coordinates of any point may be obtained by adding algebraically the latitudes and departures of the lines between that point and the origin.<br /><br />Closing error:<br />If a closed traverse is plotted according to the field measurements, the end point of the traverse will not coincide exactly with the starting point, owing to the errors in the field measurements of angles and distances. Such error is called closing error (Fig. 1.2). In a closed traverse, the algebraic sum of the latitudes (i.e. ∑ L) should be zero and the algebraic sum of the departures (i.e. ∑ D) should be zero. The error of closure for such traverse may be ascertained by finding ∑ L and ∑ D, both of these being the components of error e parallel and perpendicular to meridian.<br /> <br />Fif. 1.2. Closing error<br /><br />In fig. 1.2,<br /> Closing error e = AA' = (∑ L)2 + (∑ D)2 <br /> The direction of closing error is given by<br /> tanδ = ∑D∑L <br /><br />Adjustment of the angular error:<br />Before calculating latitudes and departures, the traverse angles should be adjusted to satisfy the geometrical conditions. In a closed traverse, the sum of interior angles should be equal to (2N − 4) × 90°. If the angles are measured with the same degree of precision, the error in the sum of angles may be distributed equally to each angle of the traverse. If the angular error is small, it may be arbitrarily distributed among two or three angles.<br /><br />Balancing the traverse:<br />The term balancing is generally applied to the operation of applying corrections to latitudes and departures so that ∑ L =0 and ∑ D = 0. This applies only when the survey forms a closed polygon. Common methods of balancing the traverse are <br />1. Bowditch's method<br />The basis of this method is on the assumptions that the errors in linear measurements are proportional to l where l is the length of the line. The Bowditch's rule, also termed as the compass rule, is mostly used to balance a traverse where linear and angular measurements are of equal precision. The total error in latitude and in departure is distributed in proportion to the lengths of the sides.<br />The Bowditch's rule is:<br />Correction to latitude (or departure) of any side <br /> = Total error in latitude (or departure) × Length of that sidePerimeter of traverse <br /> i.e, CL = ∑L . l∑l<br /> And CD = ∑D . l∑l<br />Where CL = correction to latitude of any side<br /> CD = correction to departure of any side<br /> ∑L= total error in latitude<br /> ∑D= total error in departure<br /> ∑l = length of the perimeter<br /> l = length of any side<br />2. Transit method<br />The transit rule may be employed where angular measurements are more precise than the linear measurements. According to this rule, the total error in latitudes and in departures is distributed in proportion to the latitudes and departures of the sides. It is claimed that the angles are less affected by corrections applied by transit method than by those by Bowditch's method. <br />The transit rule is:<br />Correction to latitude (or departure) of any side <br /> = Total error in latitude (or departure) ×Latitude (or Departure) of that sideArithmatic sum of Latitudes (or Departures) <br /> i.e., CL = ∑L . L∑|L|<br /> and CD = ∑D . D∑|D|<br />Where L = latitude of any side<br /> D = departure of any side<br /> ∑|L| = arithmetic sum of latitudes<br /> ∑|D| = arithmetic sum of departures<br />3. Graphical method<br />For rough survey, such as compass traverse, the Bowditch's rule may be applied graphically without doing theoretical calculations. Thus, according to the graphical method, it is necessary to calculate latitudes and departures etc. However, before plotting the traverse directly from the field notes, the angles or bearings may be adjusted to satisfy the geometrical conditions of the traverse.<br /> <br />Fig.1.3. Graphical adjustment of traverse<br />4. The axis method<br />This method is adopted when the angles are measured very accurately, the corrections being applied to lengths only. Thus, only directions of the line are changed and the general shape of the diagram is preserved.<br /> <br />Fig. 1.4. Axis method of balancing traverse<br /><br />According to this method,<br />Correction to any length = that length × 12 length of closing errorLength of axis of adjustment <br /><br />Tacheometric surveying:<br />Tacheometry (or Tachemetry or Telemetry) is a branch of angular surveying in which the horizontal and vertical distances of points are obtained by optical means as opposed to the ordinary slower process of measurements by tape or chain. The method is very rapid and convenient. Although the accuracy of Tacheometry in general compares unfavorably with that of chaining, it is best adopted in obstacles such as steep and broken ground, deep ravines, stretches of water or swamp and so on, which make chaining difficult or impossible. The accuracy attained is such that under favorable conditions the error will not exceed 1/1000, and if the purpose of a survey does not require greater accuracy, the method is unexcelled. The primary object of Tacheometry is the preparation of contoured maps or plans requiring both the horizontal as well as vertical control. Also, on surveys of higher accuracy, it provides a check on distances measured with the tape.<br /><br />Instruments for tacheometry<br />An ordinary transit theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm is generally used for tacheometric survey. The stadia diaphragm essentially consists of one stadia hair above and the other an equal distance below the horizontal cross-hair, the stadia hairs being mounted in the same ring and in the same vertical plane as the vertical and horizontal cross-hairs.<br /> <br />Fig.1.5. Stadia diaphragm<br />Stadia method for tacheometric measurement<br />This is the most common method in tacheometry. In this method, observation is made with the help of a stadia diaphragm having stadia wires at fixed or constant distance apart. The readings on the staff corresponding to all the three wires are taken. The staffs intercepts, i.e. the difference of the readings corresponding to top and bottom stadia wires will therefore, depend on the distance of the staff from the instrument. When the staff intercepts is more than the length of the staff, only half intercept is read. For inclined sights, readings may be taken by keeping the staff either vertical or normal to the line of sight.<br /><br /><br /><br />Principle of stadia method<br />The stadia method is based on the principle that the ratio of the perpendicular to the base is constant in similar isosceles triangles.<br />In Fig. 1.6, let two rays OA and OB be equally inclined to the central ray OC. Let A2B2, A1B1 and AB be the staff intercepts, <br />Then OC2A2B2 = OC1A1B1 = OCAB = constant = OC2 × AC <br /> = 12 tan β2 = 12 cot β2<br /> <br />Fig. 1.6.<br /><br /> <br />Fig. 1.7. Principle of stadia method<br />Let A, C and B = the points cut by the three line of sight corresponding to the three wires.<br />Also, a, c and b = top, axial and bottom hairs of the diaphragm.<br /> ab = i = interval between the stadia hairs (stadia interval)<br /> AB = s = staff intercept <br /> d = distance of the vertical axis of the instrument from O<br /> D = horizontal distance of the staff from the vertical axis of the instrument<br /> M = center of the instrument corresponding to the vertical axis<br />Now, from figure,<br /> FCAB = OFa'b' = fi <br />Or, FC = fi AB = fi s<br />Also, distance from the axis to the staff is given by<br /> D = FC + ( f + d ) = fi s + ( f + d ) = k s + C <br />Above equation is known as the distance equation.<br />The constant k = fi is known as the multiplying constant or stadia interval factor and the constant C = ( f + d ) is known as the additive constant of the instrument.<br />Using a Plano-convex lens called anallatic or anallactic lens at the vertical axis (at point M), the values of k and C are made 100 and 0 for simplicity of calculation.<br /><br />Distance and elevation formula <br /> <br />Fig. 1.8<br />We know, distance of the staff from the instrument is given as<br /> D = k A'B' + C<br /> = k s cos α + C <br />Then, the horizontal distance is given as <br /> H = D cos α <br /> H = k s cos2 α + C cos α <br />Also, elevation of the line of sight from the instrument is<br /> V = k s cos α sin α + C sin α<br /> V = k s sin 2α + C sin α<br />Thus, elevation of the staff station is given by<br /> R.L. of staff station Y = R.L. of instrument station X + H.I. + V − h<br /><br />Observations and Calculations:<br /><br />Table 1.1. Linear Measurement of Survey Lines<br /><br />S. N. Line Forward Measurement<br />(f) m Backward Measurement<br />(b) m Mean length<br />(x = f + b2 ) m<br />Discrepancy<br />(e = | f - b |) m Precision<br />( p = ex ) <br /><br />1 AB 40.594 40.614 40.604 0.020 12030 <br /><br />2 BC 25.896 25.902 25.899 0.006 14316 <br /><br />3 CD 41.364 41.358 41.361 0.006 16893 <br /><br />4 DE 28.732 28.734 28.733 0.002 114366 <br /><br />5 EA 42.486 42.492 42.489 0.006 17081sureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-55403583708710588282010-06-04T15:23:00.000+05:302010-06-04T15:27:15.352+05:30survey report on theodolite traversingOBJECTIVES<br /> To know the advantages of bearing and their use in various survey works.<br /> To be familiar with the checks and errors in a closed traves and solve them.<br /> To be familiar with various types and methods of traves surveying fot detailing.<br /> To know well about the travese computation and be fluent in it.<br />INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED<br /> Tape <br /> Ranging rod <br /> Pegs<br /> Hammer<br /> Theodolite with tripod<br /> Prismatic compass<br />THEORY <br />Travesing is that type of survey in which member of connected survey lines from the frame work and the direction and lengths of the survey lines are measured with the help og an angle (or direction) measuring instrument and a tape(or a chain). When the lines form a circuit which ends at the starting points, it is known as closed traverse. It the circuit ends else where, it is said to be an open traverse.<br />The close traverse is suitable for locating the boundaries of lakes, wood etc and for the survey of large araes, whereas open traverse is suitable for surveying a long narrow strip of land as required for a road or canal or the coast line.<br />The main principle of traverse is that a series of the straight line are connected to each other and the length and direction of each lines are known. The traverse lines or legs should be passed through the area to be surveyed. The joins of two points of each lines is known as traverse station and the angle at any station between two consecutive traverse legs is known as traverse angle.<br />Traversing by compass and theodolite<br />The traverse in which the length of the traverse leg is directly measured by taping or chainging on the ground and the bearing of the traverse station is measured by the compass is called compass traversing. The traversing in which the length between two stations of the traverse is measured directly by chaining or taping in the ground and angle of the station is measured by the theodolite is called theodolite traversing.<br />Procedure<br /> First of all the traverse stations were fixed around the given area to the surveyed keeping in the ratio of traverse legs 1:2 for major and 1:3 for minor traverse. The number of the stations were choosen in convinient manner.<br /> Measurement of the horizontal distance of the traverse legs were taken by the tape. Two ways ie forward and backward measurement of each traverse leg were taken.<br /> Now, with the help of theodolite two sets of horizontal angle between the traverse legs were measured.<br /> At the same time, one set of vertical angle were also measured.<br /> The height of the instrument in every set up of theodolite was also measured.<br /> Now, with help of level machine, the height of signal or say RL of each stations with respect to the given assumed BM was measured.<br /> With the help of prismatic compass, magnetic bearing of one traverse line was measured.<br />Observation and calculations<br /><br />Comments and discussions <br />Here the traverse computation is done in a tabular form, called Gale’s Traverse table. For complete traverse computations, following steps were carried out:<br /> The interior angles were adjusted to satisfy the geometrical conditions, ie sum of interior angles to be equal to (2n-4)x90<br /> Starting with observed bearing of one line the bearings of all the others lines were calculated.<br /> Consecutive co-ordinates ( latitude and departure ) were calculated.<br /> ∑ L and ∑ D was calculated.<br /> Necessary corrections were applied to the latitudes and departures of the lines so that ∑ L=0 and ∑ D=0. The corrections were applied by the transit rule.<br /> Using the corrected consecutive co-ordinates, the independent values…….. were calculated.<br /> The correct lengths and the correct bearings of the traverse lines were also calculated using the corrected consecutive co-ordinates.<br />ie true length (l) =√(L^2+D^2 )<br />true bearing (θ) = tan-1( D/L )sureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-42036986853964930972010-06-03T16:44:00.000+05:302010-06-03T17:03:08.814+05:30survey of road allignment<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBxuCqAE6AAabCNrEqEqbRamYL-zLPrgpeNBc-wplpN840cls_lsj0OUDCbuZ7xpYO5y0sVw3VYaZBS42BnMzANEJDfU3VFOoGX_KN04Zaed10tDsWSbce6Q74ZoWAHVKESC21YYhgFdAj/s1600/suresh.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5478508349676518642" style="WIDTH: 475px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 516px" alt="survey of road allignment" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBxuCqAE6AAabCNrEqEqbRamYL-zLPrgpeNBc-wplpN840cls_lsj0OUDCbuZ7xpYO5y0sVw3VYaZBS42BnMzANEJDfU3VFOoGX_KN04Zaed10tDsWSbce6Q74ZoWAHVKESC21YYhgFdAj/s400/suresh.jpg" border="0" /></a>sureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-54692957990594620482009-10-04T08:29:00.000+05:302009-10-04T08:30:42.367+05:30ntc code<a href=""><a href="http://">Note :<br />Please make sure that your mobile phone is switched on before submiiting the information in order to receive validation code immediately<br />Post-paid User - Enter the PUK Number<br />[PUK Number Length = 8]<br />To get PUK, please type PUK and send SMS to 1400<br /><br />Pre-paid Mobile User - Enter the SIM Serial Number [Please enter 19 digit numeric value only. Example: 8997701019900000309]<br />You can find SIM SERIAL NUMBER in your valid SIM CARD.<br /><br />This process will validate you and send validation code to your mobile number.You can reset your password through this website immediately using validation code you received.<br />Internet Users- Currently Internet users are requested to forward query to support.websms@ntc.net.np with websms login id and previous password</a></a>sureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-22327784007878663212009-10-04T08:19:00.001+05:302009-10-04T08:19:29.444+05:30ntc1. For NTC Mobile User<br />Mobile Number,<br />PUK Number (for Post-paid User) or SIM Serial Number (for Pre-paid User)<br />Previous Password<br />2. For Internet User<br />UserId,<br />Password<br /><br />Thank You!!<br />Nepal Telecom<br />The Short Message Service (SMS) is the ability to send and receive text messages to and from mobile telephones. The text can comprise of words or numbers or an alphanumeric combination. SMS was created as part of the GSM Phase 1 standard. Each short message is up to 160 characters in length when Latin alphabets are used, and 70 characters in length when non-Latin alphabets such as Arabic and Chinese are used. When a mobile user sends SMS to other mobile user, the message is at first sent to SMSC server which then stores and forwards the message to respective destination.sureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-33101541769174940722009-09-20T19:41:00.001+05:302009-09-20T19:41:32.639+05:30Polysulphide Extruder;# Polysulphide Extruder;<br /><br /> * Adjustable mixing ratio,<br /> * Adjustable hydraulic operation pressure,<br /> * High pressure safety system,<br /> * Heating system for base component,<br /> * Base and Catalyzer component pumps with hydraulic feeding,<br /> * Mixer unit for homogen mixing of two components,<br /> * Adjustable material flow rate,<br /> * Warning system for starting the curing of mixed material,<br /> * Warning system for low material level,<br /> * Electrical system compliant with general safety rulessureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-81706345402868625152009-09-20T19:33:00.003+05:302009-09-20T19:33:51.395+05:30human resourcesPolicy and Definition<br />Our Human Resources are our most important resources which are going to make efficient use of our other respurces. It is the human resources policy of CMS Glass Machinery to provide our employees with secure working environment and equal opportunities.<br /><br />Employment at CMS<br />Applications to CMS are made via the internet, e-mail, fax, mail and by filling out an application form. Those applicants whose applications are considered favorable are invited for pre-interviews. And those applicants who are short-listed are accepted for employment after they have interviews with the relevant department heads.<br /><br />Education at CMS<br />In order to reach their maximum potentials and in accordance with the needs of the work organization, employees are given the benefits of orientation, rotation, technical and personal development training.<br /><br />Career at CMS<br />The more important criteria in an employee’s promotion within the ranks of the CMS are the employee’s abilities to work in a result – oriented manner, to keep the deadlines, to gain the recogniziton of seniors and positive improvements in personality profile.sureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-79779518437422597612009-09-20T19:33:00.001+05:302009-09-20T19:33:49.544+05:30human resourcesPolicy and Definition<br />Our Human Resources are our most important resources which are going to make efficient use of our other respurces. It is the human resources policy of CMS Glass Machinery to provide our employees with secure working environment and equal opportunities.<br /><br />Employment at CMS<br />Applications to CMS are made via the internet, e-mail, fax, mail and by filling out an application form. Those applicants whose applications are considered favorable are invited for pre-interviews. 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We also offer spandrel panels3<br />made using heat-strengthened or tempered<br />glass coated on a non-exterior surface with<br />solid ceramic frit or fallout resistant<br />silicone spray.sureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-29394244274890789082009-09-20T19:27:00.000+05:302009-09-20T19:28:19.433+05:30glass tempering m/c# Flat Glass Tempering Furnace ;<br /><br /> * Loading and Unloading conveyors,<br /> * Complete heating furnace, quenching and cooling sections,<br /> * Blower system for both quenching and final cooling,<br /> * Complete drive system,<br /> * Pneumatic functional equipment,<br /> * Electric cabins with internal wiring,<br /> * Able to process glass thickness between 4-19 mm,<br /> * Extended system for coated glass,<br /> * Lifting property on loading and unloading conveyors,<br /> * Cullet removal with drawer system,<br /> * Touch panel control unit,<br /> * Driver system on fan for energy safety,<br /> * Long life quartz resistance and silica rollers,<br /> * Automatic air flow circulation adjustment inside the furnace,<br /> * Automatic SO2 gas adjustment,<br /> * Able to control full line by operator control panel,<br /> * Able to control furnace heating areas by operator control panelsureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-26820616161994774662009-09-20T19:23:00.000+05:302009-09-20T19:24:40.352+05:30glass# Tilting table;<br /><br /> * Hydraulic tilting feature of glass-loading table,<br /> * Air cushion system,<br /><br /># Laminated glass cutting and breaking table;<br /><br /> * Manuel and automatic operation features,<br /> * Double-sided cutting mechanism,<br /> * Adjustable up / down cutting head oiling system,<br /> * Laminated and float glass cutting function,<br /> * Adjustable cutting pressure,<br /> * Infrared resistance (medium wave),<br /> * Automatic breaking of upper and lower glass,<br /><br /># Positioning table;<br /><br /> * Reciprocating positioning system ,<br /> * Air cushion system,<br /> * Unloading arms,sureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-24213291793384537002009-09-16T13:38:00.004+05:302009-09-16T13:41:26.231+05:30adviser hostingExpert Advisor Hosting is a service made available through FOREX.com by one of the leading providers of MetaTrader hosting, Gallant Partners Hosting. With Expert Advisor Hosting, you'll benefit from having your EAs (Expert Advisors) run in a professional environment designed to support 24-hour trading with 99% uptime. <br /><br />Expert Advisor Hosting is ideal for clients that want to: <br />Run EAs 24/7 during trading hours<br /><br /><br />Access your account from any computer<br /><br /><br />Trade on Mac OS X or any OS<br /><br /><br />Easily upload and manage your EAs with a fast and secure account manager <br />Expert Advisor Hosting is available at no cost to FOREX.com customers, a $54.95/month value.*sureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-41040149903675544092009-09-16T13:38:00.002+05:302009-09-16T13:39:17.332+05:30meta chartMeta Charts<br /><br />Integrated seamlessly into the MetaTrader 4 trading platform, Meta Charts combines a professional charting application with MetaTrader 4's popular custom indicators, scripts and automated trading capabilities. <br />Click here to enlarge <br /><br /><br />Some features include: <br />Choose from 50 technical studies, including 30 technical indicators and 20 line studies<br /><br /><br />Create, test and automate your own technical studies and indicators using Meta Quotes Language 4<br /><br /><br />Choose from 9 time intervals, from 1 minute to monthly<br /><br /><br />Place trades and view open positions directly from your charts<br /><br /><br />View an unlimited number of charts at once<br /><br /><br />Integrate your chart analysis with MetaTrader 4's auto-execution technologies: choose from Instant Execution, Request Execution, Market Executionsureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-7076719746455692182009-09-16T13:35:00.000+05:302009-09-16T13:36:51.096+05:30forex tradeFOREX.com is a global leader in foreign exchange trading with clients in over 140 countries worldwide. Founded in 1999, GAIN Capital Group, LLC is now one of the largest and most respected firms in the industry thanks to its commitment to technical innovation and unrivalled service and support.<br /><br />FOREX.com is a dedicated partner to professional FX traders and fund managers, offering a range of. institutional services including IB programs and Money Manager solutions.<br /><br />Through FOREX.com, traders can take advantage of MetaTrader 4's unique features including tightly integrated Expert Advisers, hedging capabilities, customizable charting and automated trading through MQL4. Individual forex traders also benefit from our professional market research and expertise, all with the reassurance of the financial strength of GAIN Capital Group.sureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-68560237444169018092009-09-12T16:52:00.001+05:302009-09-12T16:52:42.604+05:30forex acManaged Forex Accounts<br /><br /> <br /><br /> Hello!What i think makes my Fund different from other companies is that for me to start trading for you,<br /><br /> you only need to tell me your trading platform name,login name and password.Everything is suppose to be on<br /><br /> your name.If you already have trading account,i can start managing your account right now.If you don't have<br /><br /> forex trading account you can open one byyourself and then tell me your trading platfom name, login and <br /><br /> password,so i can log in to your trading system and start managing your account for you.I charge only<br /><br /> perfomance fee of 30% from profit i make for you.There is no other fees.When i make profit for you,you can<br /><br /> wire me fee to my bank account or send it through Western Union.When i trade for you,i don't change the<br /><br /> password,so anytime you want you can log in to your system and check your balance and opened positions.<br /><br /> We need to communicate with you when i manage your account and i think it will be good if we use a Skype<br /><br /> to communicate with each other.Skype is a similar to MSN,Yahoo MSG or ICQ.You can download Skype for<br /><br /> free,using yahoo or google search.My Skype is on almost all the time.On the next pages you can find the more<br /><br /> detailed information concerning what i am offering.sureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-66138698898892257702009-09-09T10:09:00.001+05:302009-09-09T10:09:44.614+05:30news<a href="">An article over at news.com:<br /><br />"From Web page to Web platform<br />The advent of the Web 10 years ago opened up vast banks of information to anyone with an Internet connection. Now, clever programming tricks that use data from public Web sites are letting developers mix up that information to suit consumers' particular needs."<br /><br />Full article at news.com.<br /><br />Most people still don't understand that the web is the moral equivalent of the mainframe model from ages ago. The webbrowser has replaced the dumb terminal, the webserver the mainframe computer.<br /><br />To create this new kind of true shared computing environment all one needs is a software platform like MOBIE where, in addition to many other benefits, a website becomes a computing resource, not just an information resource.<br /></a>sureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-1778852108621421292009-09-08T09:46:00.000+05:302009-09-08T09:47:49.732+05:30Exterior Auto PartsExterior Auto Parts<br /><br />A wide variety of exterior auto parts are available to help protect your investment from damage, or just to make it into a smokin’ hot machine! Body molding and trim can help protect (or hide) dents and rust; mud flaps, splash guards, and fender flares can keep give your car a boost of protection against debris lying in the road.<br /><br />Dress up your car with a license plate frame, a unique grille, window louvers, running boards, spoilers, wings, and body styling, sunroofs, pinstriping, and door accessories. Protect your headlights with light covers and guards. Or maybe you’re looking for a locking gas cap. Whatever you need, we can help you find it.<br /><br />Body molding comes in many varieties, including vinyl, aluminum, chrome, and stainless steel. They can be custom-formed to fit your vehicle perfectly. Door guards, channel trim, accent panels, and body guards are also available to help protect your car from dents and paint chips.<br /><br />Door hinges, car door handles and assemblies, and door pin inserts keep your doors securely fastened to the frame. Most fender flares are coated with a UV-resistant material to keep them looking sharp while they protect your car. Headlight covers are usually made with heavy-duty acrylic and are custom-formed to fit the shape of your car’s headlights perfectly. If you’re looking for headlight protection for an off-road vehicle, you may want to pick up some headlight guards as well. Another headlight accessory that may interest you, particularly if you do a lot of nighttime driving, is the headlight visor. When these are installed, you can use your high beams without upsetting oncoming drivers. Taillight covers, guards, and third brake light covers are also available in a number of designs, made of very durable materials.<br /><br />Spoilers and wings increase stability and help you save gas money by making your car more aerodynamic. They also make your car look more sporty without weighing it down. Spoilers are usually made of a lightweight material such as fiberglass, polyurethane, or steel, and they’re built to last. Many designs are available, so you’re sure to see something you like. Wiper cowls and air dams can also jazz up the look of your vehicle.<br /><br />For trucks, a rear valance and roll pan can replace the bumper to give it a classy appearance. If it’s an off-road type vehicle, you may want to pick up some roll bars as well.<br /><br />Window louvers permit air and light to enter your car while keeping rain and road debris out. These are usually made from heavy-duty, rustproof materials, such as acrylic, stainless steel, or aluminum, and many designs and colors are available.<br /><br /> * 2009 © www.autosureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-31475634902272282142009-09-08T09:45:00.000+05:302009-09-08T09:46:01.829+05:30exhaustExhaust<br /><br />Modern automobiles work based off of a simple, controlled explosion that happens within the engine when an air/fuel mixture is squirted into an airtight chamber and set to explode using the spark plugs. This explosion basically pushes one part of the car (pistons), which pushes or moves other parts of the car, which turns belts and so on an so forth until your wheels are moving…all as a result of the explosion. But there is a principle law of thermodynamics that states that matter can be neither created nor destroyed, so what happened to that air and gasoline mixture that we blew up inside the piston chamber?<br />Enter the Exhaust<br /><br />Once the gasoline and air mixture in your car explodes, the carbon in your gas mixes with the oxygen in the air and forms CO2 (or carbon dioxide). Also formed from this process is water (H20) and nitrogen (N2). Nitrogen and water (H20) are harmless to humans and naturally present in our atmosphere in large amounts. The nitrogen atoms created from your car’s engine are small enough to simply slip through the molecular bonds of your car and float free without any effort at all from us. Moving the water vapor and C02, on the other hand requires some work. Both of these are shuttled out of the engine and down a pipe toward the back of your car. Before they reach the end of your car (the tailpipe) they pass through the catalytic converter.<br />Catalytic Converters<br /><br />Catalytic converters work as a catalyst - or a facilitator to convert or alter a chemical substance. They do this using extremely expensive components - platinum, palladium, rhodium, or gold (which is the least expensive of the four), and forcing the exhaust from your car through a small, tight honeycomb network of these and other materials, which causes them to change composition and become less harmful before they are passed out of your car’s tailpipe. In addition, the exhaust system of all modern cars has a sensor before the catalytic converter (closer to the engine), which measures the gasses coming from the engine and can notify the computer controlling the engine what the fuel or oxygen ratio is at that point. If the oxygen is too high, the engine can use a lower-oxygen ratio in the combustion to drive the car and vice versa for fuel. This enables modern engines to act at a much more efficient, fuel-saving and emissions-reducing level than was possible in early autos. Because of the extremely expensive materials used in catalytic converters, they naturally are fairly expensive to replace if they are damaged or stop functioning properly. Also, catalytic converters work best when they are heated, meaning that when you first start your car, they are doing virtually nothing at all to the exhaust that is passing through it. Modern hybrid vehicles use their batteries to heat the catalytic converter to an appropriate temperature fairly quickly, which makes them more efficient and managing car engine wastes than a standard car in addition to saving on fuel.<br /><br /> * 2009 © www.automobile.cosureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-50688507107143493792009-09-08T09:44:00.001+05:302009-09-08T09:44:46.075+05:30brakesYour Auto Brakes<br /><br />If you were to make a list of the most important parts in your vehicle, you’d probably place the brakes near the top. You certainly can’t drive without them and malfunctioning brakes can cause serious problems. We all have a general idea about how the brakes in our vehicles work - they slow down the car until it eventually comes to a stop, but any understanding beyond that is probably a mystery. Read this informative brake guide and expand your knowledge on this vital part of your vehicle!<br />Disc Brakes<br /><br />Although some vehicles use drum brakes or a combination of different types, disc braking systems are by far the most popular in our vehicles today. When you push your brakes in your car, your braking system tells the pads over your wheels to clamp down. Depending on how much pressure you apply to your brakes, the pads will eventually prevent the vehicle’s wheels from spinning any further. Disc brakes have proven to be more effective than drum brakes, as they eliminate heat faster, which helps prevent brake failure. However, over time, almost all disc brake pads will wear out and require replacement to properly function.<br />Anti-Lock Braking System<br /><br />While the Anti-lock Braking System used to be a luxury in certain cars, it can now be found in just about every vehicle out there. Each car maker has their specific anti-lock braking system, but they all generally work the same way. If you’re ever forced to slam on your brakes and come to an emergency stop, your ABS should jump into action. During your emergency stop, it will automatically take control of the car’s brake pressure in order to prevent the wheels from locking. It allows you to still safely bring your car to a halt, without putting yourself at risk to skid across the road.<br />Common Brake Problems<br /><br />As one of the most vital parts in your vehicle, you always want to make sure that your brakes are working properly. Here’s a look at some of the most common problems that pop up with brakes and their causes:<br /><br /> * One of the more serious issues that can arise with brakes occurs when they begin to lock up. Some of the most common problems associated with locked brakes are wheel bearing problems or broken brake pads.<br /> * Many people complain of squealing breaks, even when they are just lightly being pressed. While it is often only dust or simple wear and tear, it could be a more serious issue, such as warped brake shoes.<br /> * Most vehicles have a light in the dash board for the ABS system and seeing it light up could mean trouble. Generally if your ABS light has come on, it means that there is something wrong with it and may not be functioning properly. Get this checked out as soon as possible, as you don’t want to risk not having anti-lock brakes when you have to make an emergency stop.sureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84018775260836140.post-40811913705277692822009-09-08T09:42:00.000+05:302009-09-08T09:43:33.045+05:30Air Intake and Fuel Delivery SystemHow Do the Air Intake and Fuel Delivery System Work?<br /><br />Today, nearly every single modern vehicle uses an internal combustion engine in one form or another. Of all the hundreds of different moving parts within a common internal combustion engine, perhaps two of the most significant are the air intake and fuel delivery system. Our engines need fuel to run and air to trigger the combustion. Without them, an engine is nothing more than a large piece of scrap metal. Here’s a look at how air intake and fuel delivery systems work in car engines:<br />Air Intake<br /><br />A standard air intake works by sucking warm air into the engine, which it can then use to oxygenate the gas inside of it. Of course, this is done to cause an ignition, providing the power the engine needs to run. Common air intakes may be fairly long, with several twists or chambers to help stifle their loud sound. While a quieter engine is probably ideal for most people, others are not satisfied with stock air intakes, most of which do not take full advantage of a vehicle’s potential horsepower.<br />Aftermarket Intakes<br /><br />With so many people looking for power in their engines, the aftermarket industry for air intake systems has grown exponentially over the past several years. Many auto enthusiasts believe that buying an improved air intake is actually the easiest way to get the most horse power out of your engine, usually allowing 5-10 greater horsepower. Aftermarket air intake systems typically work by providing increased airflow through a more direct route into the engine. There are also cold-air intake systems that offer even better performance, as cool air contains more oxygen than warm air.<br />Fuel Delivery<br /><br />In most vehicles today, fuel delivery is handled by a complex nozzle and valve, typically referred to as the fuel injector. It works by mixing fuel and air in engines, creating the combustion they require to operate. Fuel injectors are carefully tuned to each specific type of engine and the kind of fuel they will run off of. Today, they are electronically controlled to regulate the timing and amount of fuel allowed to enter the engine. There are aftermarket fuel injectors available for some vehicles, although they are not as easily installed as air intakes.<br />Fuel Injector Repair and Safety<br /><br />Believe it or not, fuel injectors are one of the few parts in a vehicle that will probably never need replacing and require very little maintenance. Very little should ever go wrong with it and they really don’t even need to be cleaned. There are fuel injector cleaners, but most auto experts find that they aren’t very useful. Should you ever want to examine your fuel injector, be aware that they can be dangerous if handled improperly. Residual pressure and fuel may remain in the injector, which can act as a hypodermic jet injector and cause serious injury.<br /><br /> * 2009 © www.automobile.cosureshhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08534305093740150734noreply@blogger.com0