toyota history

History
Main article: History of Toyota

Toyota started in 1933 as a division of Toyoda Automatic Loom Works devoted to the production of automobiles under the direction of the founder's son, Kiichiro Toyoda.[17] Its first vehicles were the A1 passenger car and the G1 in 1935. Toyota Motor Co. was established as an independent and separate company in 1937.

[edit] Company overview
With over 30 million sold, the Corolla is one of the most popular and best selling cars in the world.

The Toyota Motor Company was awarded its first Japanese Quality Control Award at the start of the 1980s and began participating in a wide variety of Motorsports. Due to the 1973 oil crisis consumers in the lucrative U.S. market began turning to small cars with better fuel economy. American car manufacturers had considered small economy cars to be an "entry level" product, and their small vehicles were made to a low level of quality in order to keep the price low.

In 1982, the Toyota Motor Company and Toyota Motor Sales merged into one company, the Toyota Motor Corporation. Two years later, Toyota entered into a joint venture with GM called NUMMI, the New United Motor Manufacturing, Inc, operating an automobile manufacturing plant in Fremont, California. The factory was an old General Motors plant that had been closed for two years. Toyota then started to establish new brands at the end of the 1980s, with the launch of their luxury division Lexus in 1989.

In the 1990s Toyota began to branch out from producing mostly compact cars by adding many larger and more luxurious vehicles to its lineup, including a full sized pickup, the T100 (and later the Tundra), several lines of SUVs, a sport version of the Camry, known as the Camry Solara, and the Scion brand, a group of several affordable, yet sporty, automobiles targeted specifically to young adults. Toyota also began production of the world's best selling hybrid car, the Prius, in 1997.

With a major presence with Europe, due to the success of Toyota Team Europe, the corporation decided to set up TMME, Toyota Motor Europe Marketing & Engineering, to help market vehicles in the continent. Two years later, Toyota set up a base in the United Kingdom, TMUK, as the company's cars had become very popular among British drivers. Bases in Indiana, Virginia and Tianjin were also set up. In 1999, the company decided to list itself on the New York and London Stock Exchange.

In 2001, Toyota's Toyo Trust and Banking merged to form the UFJ, United Financials of Japan, which was accused of corruption by the Japan's government for making bad loans to alleged Yakuza crime syndicates with executives accused of blocking Financial Service Agency inspections.[18] The UFJ was listed among Fortune Magazine's largest money-losing corporations in the world, with Toyota's chairman serving as a director.[19] At the time, the UFJ was one of the largest shareholders of Toyota. As a result of Japan's banking crisis, the UFJ was merged again to become Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group.

In 2002, Toyota managed to enter a Formula One works team and establish joint ventures with French motoring companies Citroën and Peugeot, a year after Toyota started producing cars in France.

Toyota ranked eighth on Forbes 2000 list of the world's leading companies for the year 2005.[20] The company was number one in global automobile sales for the first quarter of 2008.[21]

On December 7, 2004, a U.S. press release was issued stating that Toyota would be offering Sirius Satellite Radios. However, as late as January 27, 2007, Sirius Satellite Radio and XM Satellite radio kits were not available for Toyota factory radios.[citation needed] While the press release enumerated nine models, only limited availability existed at the dealer level in the U.S. As of 2008, all Toyota and Scion models have either standard or available XM radio kits. Major Lexus dealerships have been offering satellite radio kits for Lexus vehicles since 2005, in addition to factory-equipped satellite radio models.

In 2007, Toyota released an update of its full size truck, the Tundra, produced in two American factories, one in Texas and one in Indiana. "Motor Trend" named the Tundra "Truck of the Year," and the 2007 Toyota Camry "Car of the Year" for 2007. It also began the construction of two new factories, one to build the RAV4 in Woodstock, Ontario, Canada and the other to build the Toyota Prius in Blue Springs, Mississippi, USA. This plant was originally intended to build the Toyota Highlander, but Toyota decided to use the plant in Princeton, Indiana, USA instead. The company has also found recent success with its smaller models - the Corolla and Yaris - as gas prices have risen rapidly in the last few years.

maths

Some Famous Faces in the History of Maths...

maths history einstein

Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955)

"Do not worry about your difficulties in Mathematics. I can assure you mine are still greater."
maths history max planck
Max Planck
(1858 – 1947) maths history John venn
John Venn
(1834–1923)
maths history lord kelvin
Lord Kelvin
(1824 - 1907)
maths history george boole
George Boole
(1815 - 1864)
maths history charles babbage
Charles Babbage
(1791 - 1871)
maths history isaacnewton
Sir Isaac Newton
(1643 - 1727)
maths history blaise pascal
Blaise Pascal
(1623 - 1662) maths history john napier
John Napier
(1550 - 1617)
maths history fibonacci
Fibonacci
(1170 - 1250) maths history omar khayyam
Omar Khayyam
(1048 - 1131)
maths history hipparchus
Hipparchus
(c190 - 120 BC) maths history archimedes
Archimedes
(c287 - 212 BC)
maths history aristarchus
Aristarchus
(310 - 230 BC) maths history pythagoras
Pythagoras
(582 - 507 BC)


The History of Mathematics
For countless thousands of years mankind has had a fascination with his environment, trying to find reason, meaning and purpose in all that is – and then exploiting it.

This desire, or obsession, to understand and achieve continues to influence our lives to this day – perhaps increasingly so as our reliance on technology accelerates. Where, when and why it all began we can only guess – but here's a brief progress report so far:

Circa 30,000BC
Palaeolithic peoples in Europe record numbers on bones.

Circa 5000BC
A decimal number system is in use in Egypt.

Circa 3400BC
The first number symbols, simple straight lines, are used in Egypt.

Circa 3000BC
The abacus is used in the Middle East and Mediterranean areas.

Circa 1850BC
Babylonians know Pythagoras's Theorem.

Circa 1800BC
Babylonians use multiplication tables.

Circa 1400BC
A decimal number system, with no zero, is used in China

530BC
Pythagoras of Samos moves to Croton in Italy and teaches mathematics, geometry, music – and reincarnation.

Circa 450BC
Greeks begin to use written numerals.

Circa 290BC
Aristarchus of Samos uses a geometric method to calculate the distance of the Sun and the Moon from Earth. He also proposes that the Earth orbits the Sun.

Circa 250BC
Archimedes gives the formulae for calculating the volume of a sphere and a cylinder. He also gives an approximation of the value of π. He studies hydrostatics and explains what is now called "Archimedes' principle".

127BC
Hipparchus discovers the precession of the equinoxes and calculates the length of the year to within 6.5 minutes of the correct value. He uses an early form of trigonometry in his astronomical work.

Circa 1AD
Liu Hsin, a Chinese mathematician uses decimal fractions.

Circa 700
Mathematicians in the Mayan civilization introduce a symbol for zero into their number system.

Circa 810
The 'House of Wisdom' is established in Baghdad, where Greek and Indian mathematical and astronomical works are translated into Arabic.

950
Gerbert of Aurillac (later Pope Sylvester II) reintroduces the abacus into Europe. He uses Indian/Arabic numerals without having a zero.

976
Codex Vigilanus is copied in Spain and contains the first evidence of decimal numbers in Europe.

1072
Al-Khayyami (Omar Khayyam) writes Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra which contains a complete classification of cubic equations with geometric solutions found by means of intersecting conic sections. He measures the length of the year to be 365.24219858156 days.

Circa 1200
The Chinese start to use a symbol for zero.

1202
Fibonacci (Leonardo of Pisa) writes Liber abaci (The Book of the Abacus), which sets out the arithmetic and algebra he had learnt in Arab countries. It also introduces the famous sequence of numbers now called the "Fibonacci sequence".

1248
Li Yeh writes a book which contains negative numbers, denoted by putting a diagonal stroke through the last digit.

1336
Mathematics becomes a compulsory subject for a degree at the University of Paris.

1489
Widman writes an arithmetic book in German which contains the first appearance of + and - signs.

1514
Vander Hoecke uses the + and - signs.

1606
Snell makes the first attempt to measure a degree of the meridian arc on the Earth's surface, and so determine the size of the Earth.

1612
Bachet publishes a work on mathematical puzzles and tricks which will form the basis for almost all later books on mathematical recreations. He devises a method of constructing magic squares.

1614
Napier publishes his work on logarithms.

1617
Napier invents Napier's bones, consisting of numbered sticks, as a mechanical calculator.

1626
Albert Girard publishes a treatise on trigonometry containing the first use of the abbreviations sin, cos, tan. He also gives formulae for the area of a spherical triangle.

1631
Harriot's contributions are published ten years after his death in Artis analyticae praxis (Practice of the Analytic Art). The book introduces the symbols > and < for "greater than" and "less than" but these symbols are due to the editors of the work and not Harriot himself.

1642
Pascal builds a calculating machine to help his father with tax calculations. It performs only additions.

1659
Rahn publishes Teutsche algebra which contains ÷ (the division sign) probably invented by Pell.

1706
Jones introduces the Greek letter π to represent the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter.

1707
Newton publishes Arithmetica universalis (General Arithmetic) which contains a collection of his results in algebra.

1753
Simson notes that in the Fibonacci sequence the ratio between adjacent numbers approaches the golden ratio.

1783
Royal Society of Edinburgh is founded.

1815
Peter Roget (the author of Roget's Thesaurus) invents the "log-log" slide rule.

1823
Babbage begins construction of a large "difference engine" which is able to calculate logarithms and trigonometric functions. He was using the experience gained from his small "difference engine" which he constructed between 1819 and 1822.

1847
Boole publishes The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, in which he shows that the rules of logic can be treated mathematically rather than metaphysically. Boole's work lays the foundation of computer logic.

1848
Thomson (Lord Kelvin) proposes the absolute temperature scale now named after him.

1858
Möbius describes a strip of paper that has only one side and only one edge. Now known as the "Möbius strip", it has the surprising property that it remains in one piece when cut down the middle. Listing makes the same discovery in the same year.

1859
Mannheim invents the first modern slide rule that has a "cursor" or "indicator".

1864
London Mathematical Society founded.

1867
Moscow Mathematical Society is founded.

1872
Société Mathématique de France is founded.

1881
Venn introduces his "Venn diagrams" which become a useful tools in set theory.

1883
The Edinburgh Mathematical Society is founded.

1890
St Petersburg Mathematical Society is founded.

1901
Planck proposes quantum theory.

1905
Einstein publishes the special theory of relativity.

1907
Einstein publishes his principle of equivalence, in which says that gravitational acceleration is indistinguishable from acceleration caused by mechanical forces. It is a key ingredient of general relativity.

1908
Hardy and Weinberg present a law describing how the proportions of dominant and recessive genetic traits would be propagated in a large population. This establishes the mathematical basis for population genetics.

1915
Einstein submits a paper giving a definitive version of the general theory of relativity.

1922
Richardson publishes Weather Prediction by Numerical Process. He is the first to apply mathematics, in particular the method of finite differences, to predicting the weather. The calculations are prohibitive by hand calculation and only the development of computers will make his idea a reality.

1935
Church invents "lambda calculus" which today is an invaluable tool for computer scientists.

1948
Norbert Wiener publishes Cybernetics: or, Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. The term "cybernetics" is due to Wiener. The book details work done on the theory of information control, particularly applied to computers.

1948
Shannon invents information theory and applies mathematical methods to study errors in transmitted information. This becomes of vital importance in computer science and communications.

1949
Mauchly and John Eckert build the Binary Automatic Computer (BINAC). One of the major advances of this machine is that data is stored on magnetic tape rather than on punched cards.

1975
Mandelbrot publishes Les objets fractals, forme, hasard et dimension which describes the theory of fractals.

1982
Mandelbrot publishes The fractal geometry of nature which develops his theory of fractal geometry more fully than his work of 1975.

early mordern histry of science

Early Modern History of Science - Printed Books

Especially for chemistry and the related field of alchemy--but with notable collections as well in dentistry, botany, and agriculture--Departmental resources are strong. Resources in other areas of the sciences include such standard works as those by Vesalius, Copernicus, Pare, Hooke, and Newton; but these works are not always works represented in their earliest printed editions.

The history of chemistry before 1850 is the special focus of the Edgar Fahs Smith Memorial Collection. Smith holds some material relevant to the history of science generally, as well as materials which postdate 1850, but its major strength is chemistry before that date. Its subspecialties include the history of chemical education; such allied fields as metallurgy and mining, dyeing, and fireworks; alchemy, especially in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries; illustrative materials (including portraits of chemists and depictions of chemical laboratories, processes, and apparatus); and the publications, and some manuscripts, of Robert Boyle and Joseph Priestley.

Illustration from De Stirpium by Leonhart Fuchs (Basle: [Michael Isengrin], 1549) The Thomas W. Evans Collection gathers resources for the historical study of dentistry. These extend back to the seventeenth century and supplement area medical history collections. Runs of nineteenth-century dental journals are well-represented.





Botanicals, many from the collection of Penn Professor of Botany John W. Harshberger, include such books as the Hortus sanitatis; a beautifully-bound, heavily-annotated, and hand-colored illustrated copy of Leonhart Fuchs, De stirpium (Basle 1549); works by Brunfels and Gerard, and other similar works.

Agricultural history is the special province of the library of the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, the oldest American agricultural improvement society, which is housed in the Department. Classical as well as modern texts are preserved in this library; so are many of its own printed and manuscript records.

early mordern histry of chemistry

Early Modern History - Printed Books

The Department contains many older works on national, regional, and local history and customs. Both universal histories, such as Hartmann Schedel's Nuremberg Chronicle (the Liber Chronicarum of 1493), and more modern historical works, including those by writers such as Machiavelli, Seyssel, Hume, and Voltaire, are represented. The history of Italian city-states is one focus of the Henry Charles Lea Library. An extensive collection of broadsides and pamphlets documents multitudinous aspects of civic life and its regulation in Brunswick (Brauenschweig) from 1547 through 1857, while a substantial collection of mazarinades documents seventeenth-century French political controversies.

Mico Chlucco the Long Warrior or King of the Siminoles - Frontispiece from Travels . . .by William Bartram (London: J. Johnson, 1792) American history is heavily collected. The Robert Dechert Collection contains printed materials relating the experiences of French explorers of North and South America, as well as documenting North American Jesuit relations. Works that illustrate Native American life and costumes are another emphasis of the Dechert Collection. Early examples include several volumes of Theodor De Bry's India occidentalis (Frankfurt 1591); later examples include M'Kenney and Hall. Later North American travel literature is also strongly represented. Early narratives of the Lewis and Clark expedition and such nineteenth-century illustrated books as those by Maximilian Wied von Neuwied and Karl Bodmer complement some of the great rarities of later western overland travel, including works by Zenas Leonard and John Hale.

Portrait of Benjamin Franklin, engraved by C. Goodman and R. Piggot from an original painting by Martin for the Analectic Magazine Published by M. Thomas, 1818 Philadelphia-centered materials include early works by William Penn and other Quaker leaders of the Pennsylvania colony, and historical narratives. Significant examples of Benjamin Franklin's work as a Philadelphia printer are preserved in the Curtis Collection, donated by the Curtis Publishing Company and containing more than 280 titles printed by Franklin and his associates between 1719 and 1780. Of particular importance to the history of the University of Pennsylvania are Franklin's pamphlets--some written as well as printed by him--concerning the educational philosophy upon which he hoped to establish the Academy out of which Penn was to grow. For related holdings see the list of manuscripts concerning political and social history in modern America.



A recently-acquired collection--The Esther B. Aresty Collection of Rare Books in the Culinary Arts--includes predominantly printed sources but also some manuscript items that document the history of cookery and also shed ancillary light on women's literacy, the history of medicine ("recipes" could be medical as well as culinary), household organization, behavior, and other aspects of early modern and recednt life. Texts run from fifteenth-century editions of Platina and manuscripts of Apicius, through La Varenne, Brillat-Savarin, and other seventeenth-, eighteenth-, and nineteenth-century cookery writers, to a small selection of twentieth-century cookbooks.

history of chemistry

Incunables

The Department holds over 560 exemplars of books printed in Europe from movable type before 1501. Sixty-six of these titles are the only recorded copies in North America. These volumes contain texts in religion, philosophy, and ancient and modern literature.

Hand-colored woodcut of Helen of Troy from Boccacio's Von etlichen frowen
A few notable exemplars include the Aldine Aristotle (Venice 1495-1498), which complements the Department's many other early printed editions of and commentaries on Aristotle, as well as its manuscript commentaries on Aristotle; Boccaccio's De claris mulieribus in German, Von etlichen frowen (Ulm: Johann Zainer, [not before 15 August 1473]), a copy with beautifully hand-colored illustrations; the Inamoramento di Carlo Magno ([Venice:] Georgius Walch, 20 July 1481), one of the only two known surviving copies of this vernacular (Italian) verse romance on the life of Charlemagne; one of two recorded copies in North America of the editio princeps of Horace (Venice, ca. 1471-2); and a number of titles "not in Goff"--not listed, that is, in Incunabula in American Libraries: A Third Census, comp. and ed. Frederick R. Goff (New York 1964)--such as the Summa in virtutes cardinales et vitia illis [con]traria . . . [Paris: Ulrich Gering and Guillermus Maynyal, 16 August 1480] (Hain 15173), a treatise on the virtues and vices that is part of a collection of texts on this subject.

chemistry information

Chemistry Help



Encyclopedia of Chemistry

* This is a comprehensive encyclopedia of chemistry. You can search for almost any topic!

Chemistry Charts and Tables

* Lots of different charts and tables are posted on this site including elements, acids/bases, formulas, etc.

Chemistry Notes

* The pages on this website are the chemistry lecture notes, including charts and diagrams, that someone has developed over the past several years for teaching high school chemistry and college chemistry.

Organic Chemistry Help

* Find organic chemistry tutorials, self-grading tests, common organic chemistry reaction mechanisms, FAQs, and laboratory help.

destination guide

8 HOURS
Oslo Destination Guide
Photo: Vigeland Sculpture Park, Oslo, Norway
Over 200 life-size sculptures populate the Vigeland Sculpture Park.
Photo by Travel Pix Collection/Jonarnoldimages.com

Norway's capital lures visitors with its new cultural treasures.

From the glossy new Nobel Peace Center to a developing riverfront, Oslo makes the most of its newfound wealth. But Norwegians also love the outdoors and are proud of the fact that only one third of the city is urbanized, the rest comprising forests, lakes, rivers, and the Oslo Fjord. In the September 2007 issue of National Geographic Traveler, Raphael Kadushin explores this northern powerhouse—one of the world's most expensive cities.